CWE-287
DiscouragedImproper Authentication
Abstraction: Class · Status: Draft
When an actor claims to have a given identity, the product does not prove or insufficiently proves that the claim is correct.
5966 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-RG2C-FFR7-G2V8
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-07-16 12:30 – Updated: 2025-07-16 12:30An improper access control vulnerability was found in the EZ Sync Manager of ADM, which allows authenticated users to copy arbitrary files from the server file system into their own EZSync folder. The vulnerability is due to a lack of authorization checks on the file parameter of the HTTP request. Attackers can exploit this flaw to access files outside their authorized scope, provided the file has readable permissions for other users on the underlying OS. This can lead to unauthorized exposure of sensitive data. Affected products and versions include: from ADM 4.1.0 to ADM 4.3.3.RH61 as well as ADM 5.0.0.RIN1 and earlier.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-7699"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-07-16T10:15:29Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "An improper access control vulnerability was found in the EZ Sync Manager of ADM, which allows authenticated users to copy arbitrary files from the server file system into their own EZSync folder. The vulnerability is due to a lack of authorization checks on the file parameter of the HTTP request. Attackers can exploit this flaw to access files outside their authorized scope, provided the file has readable permissions for other users on the underlying OS. This can lead to unauthorized exposure of sensitive data.\nAffected products and versions include: from ADM 4.1.0 to ADM 4.3.3.RH61 as well as ADM 5.0.0.RIN1 and earlier.",
"id": "GHSA-rg2c-ffr7-g2v8",
"modified": "2025-07-16T12:30:22Z",
"published": "2025-07-16T12:30:22Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-7699"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.asustor.com/security/security_advisory_detail?id=46"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:N/VC:H/VI:N/VA:N/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
GHSA-RG74-CG6P-WP8Q
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 19:09 – Updated: 2022-05-24 19:09Dell EMC iDRAC9 versions 4.40.00.00 and later, but prior to 4.40.10.00, contain an improper authentication vulnerability. A remote unauthenticated attacker could potentially exploit this vulnerability to gain access to the virtual console.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-21538"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-07-29T16:15:00Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "Dell EMC iDRAC9 versions 4.40.00.00 and later, but prior to 4.40.10.00, contain an improper authentication vulnerability. A remote unauthenticated attacker could potentially exploit this vulnerability to gain access to the virtual console.",
"id": "GHSA-rg74-cg6p-wp8q",
"modified": "2022-05-24T19:09:18Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T19:09:18Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-21538"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.dell.com/support/kbdoc/000186420"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-RG7V-73FX-2HFH
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:37 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:37A vulnerability in the upgrade mechanism of Cisco collaboration products based on the Cisco Voice Operating System software platform could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to gain unauthorized, elevated access to an affected device. The vulnerability occurs when a refresh upgrade (RU) or Prime Collaboration Deployment (PCD) migration is performed on an affected device. When a refresh upgrade or PCD migration is completed successfully, an engineering flag remains enabled and could allow root access to the device with a known password. If the vulnerable device is subsequently upgraded using the standard upgrade method to an Engineering Special Release, service update, or a new major release of the affected product, this vulnerability is remediated by that action. Note: Engineering Special Releases that are installed as COP files, as opposed to the standard upgrade method, do not remediate this vulnerability. An attacker who can access an affected device over SFTP while it is in a vulnerable state could gain root access to the device. This access could allow the attacker to compromise the affected system completely. Cisco Bug IDs: CSCvg22923, CSCvg55112, CSCvg55128, CSCvg55145, CSCvg58619, CSCvg64453, CSCvg64456, CSCvg64464, CSCvg64475, CSCvg68797.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-12337"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2017-11-16T07:29:00Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "A vulnerability in the upgrade mechanism of Cisco collaboration products based on the Cisco Voice Operating System software platform could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to gain unauthorized, elevated access to an affected device. The vulnerability occurs when a refresh upgrade (RU) or Prime Collaboration Deployment (PCD) migration is performed on an affected device. When a refresh upgrade or PCD migration is completed successfully, an engineering flag remains enabled and could allow root access to the device with a known password. If the vulnerable device is subsequently upgraded using the standard upgrade method to an Engineering Special Release, service update, or a new major release of the affected product, this vulnerability is remediated by that action. Note: Engineering Special Releases that are installed as COP files, as opposed to the standard upgrade method, do not remediate this vulnerability. An attacker who can access an affected device over SFTP while it is in a vulnerable state could gain root access to the device. This access could allow the attacker to compromise the affected system completely. Cisco Bug IDs: CSCvg22923, CSCvg55112, CSCvg55128, CSCvg55145, CSCvg58619, CSCvg64453, CSCvg64456, CSCvg64464, CSCvg64475, CSCvg68797.",
"id": "GHSA-rg7v-73fx-2hfh",
"modified": "2022-05-13T01:37:51Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:37:51Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-12337"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://tools.cisco.com/security/center/content/CiscoSecurityAdvisory/cisco-sa-20171115-vos"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/101865"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039813"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039814"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039815"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039816"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039817"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039818"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039819"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1039820"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-RG8F-W58V-JV6V
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-17 05:18 – Updated: 2025-04-11 04:05The SSH USERAUTH CHANGE REQUEST feature in SSH Tectia Server 6.0.4 through 6.0.20, 6.1.0 through 6.1.12, 6.2.0 through 6.2.5, and 6.3.0 through 6.3.2 on UNIX and Linux, when old-style password authentication is enabled, allows remote attackers to bypass authentication via a crafted session involving entry of blank passwords, as demonstrated by a root login session from a modified OpenSSH client with an added input_userauth_passwd_changereq call in sshconnect2.c.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2012-5975"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2012-12-04T23:55:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The SSH USERAUTH CHANGE REQUEST feature in SSH Tectia Server 6.0.4 through 6.0.20, 6.1.0 through 6.1.12, 6.2.0 through 6.2.5, and 6.3.0 through 6.3.2 on UNIX and Linux, when old-style password authentication is enabled, allows remote attackers to bypass authentication via a crafted session involving entry of blank passwords, as demonstrated by a root login session from a modified OpenSSH client with an added input_userauth_passwd_changereq call in sshconnect2.c.",
"id": "GHSA-rg8f-w58v-jv6v",
"modified": "2025-04-11T04:05:29Z",
"published": "2022-05-17T05:18:16Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2012-5975"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/rapid7/metasploit-framework/blob/master/modules/exploits/unix/ssh/tectia_passwd_changereq.rb"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://archives.neohapsis.com/archives/fulldisclosure/2012-12/0013.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://archives.neohapsis.com/archives/fulldisclosure/2012-12/0065.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/23082"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-RGCF-5MHJ-JM48
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-11-26 09:30 – Updated: 2024-11-26 09:30Initial xbl_sec revision does not have all the debug policy features and critical checks.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2016-10394"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2024-11-26T09:15:04Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Initial xbl_sec revision does not have all the debug policy features and critical checks.",
"id": "GHSA-rgcf-5mhj-jm48",
"modified": "2024-11-26T09:30:49Z",
"published": "2024-11-26T09:30:49Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2016-10394"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://docs.qualcomm.com/product/publicresources/securitybulletin/may-2018-bulletin.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-RGFR-7RR5-7928
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:41 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:41Certain web application pages in the authenticated section of the Teradici Cloud Access Connector prior to v18 were accessible without the need to specify authentication tokens, which allowed an attacker in the ability to execute sensitive functions without credentials.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-13185"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-02-11T18:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Certain web application pages in the authenticated section of the Teradici Cloud Access Connector prior to v18 were accessible without the need to specify authentication tokens, which allowed an attacker in the ability to execute sensitive functions without credentials.",
"id": "GHSA-rgfr-7rr5-7928",
"modified": "2022-05-24T17:41:52Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:41:52Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-13185"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://advisory.teradici.com/security-advisories/69"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-RGGC-M335-3WVJ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-07-02 16:03 – Updated: 2026-07-02 16:03Summary
Same-host trusted-proxy deployments could accept local forged identity headers. In affected versions, a local same-host caller that can reach the proxy-facing Gateway port could supply identity headers normally reserved for the trusted proxy.
This advisory is scoped to the named feature and configuration. It does not change OpenClaw's trusted-operator model: authenticated Gateway operators, installed plugins, and intentional local execution surfaces remain trusted unless a separate policy, approval, allowlist, sandbox, or auth boundary is crossed.
Impact
When the affected feature is enabled and reachable, this could receive operator identity associated with the forged headers. Practical impact depends on the operator's configuration and whether lower-trust input can reach that path.
Patched Versions
The first stable patched version is 2026.5.18.
Mitigations
bind trusted-proxy ingress behind the actual proxy and firewall direct same-host access. As general hardening, keep channel and tool allowlists narrow, avoid sharing one Gateway between mutually untrusted users, and disable the affected feature when it is not needed.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "npm",
"name": "openclaw"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "2026.5.18"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-269",
"CWE-284",
"CWE-287",
"CWE-290",
"CWE-863"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2026-07-02T16:03:10Z",
"nvd_published_at": null,
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "### Summary\n\nSame-host trusted-proxy deployments could accept local forged identity headers. In affected versions, a local same-host caller that can reach the proxy-facing Gateway port could supply identity headers normally reserved for the trusted proxy.\n\nThis advisory is scoped to the named feature and configuration. It does not change OpenClaw\u0027s trusted-operator model: authenticated Gateway operators, installed plugins, and intentional local execution surfaces remain trusted unless a separate policy, approval, allowlist, sandbox, or auth boundary is crossed.\n\n### Impact\n\nWhen the affected feature is enabled and reachable, this could receive operator identity associated with the forged headers. Practical impact depends on the operator\u0027s configuration and whether lower-trust input can reach that path.\n\n### Patched Versions\n\nThe first stable patched version is `2026.5.18`.\n\n### Mitigations\n\nbind trusted-proxy ingress behind the actual proxy and firewall direct same-host access. As general hardening, keep channel and tool allowlists narrow, avoid sharing one Gateway between mutually untrusted users, and disable the affected feature when it is not needed.",
"id": "GHSA-rggc-m335-3wvj",
"modified": "2026-07-02T16:03:10Z",
"published": "2026-07-02T16:03:10Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/openclaw/openclaw/security/advisories/GHSA-rggc-m335-3wvj"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/openclaw/openclaw"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:P/PR:N/UI:P/VC:H/VI:H/VA:H/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
],
"summary": "OpenClaw: Same-host trusted-proxy deployments could accept local forged identity headers"
}
GHSA-RGGQ-3JWV-VJH4
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-01 23:49 – Updated: 2022-05-01 23:49MyPicGallery 1.0 allows remote attackers to bypass application authentication and gain administrative access by setting the userID parameter to "admin" in a direct request to admin/addUser.php.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2008-2347"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2008-05-20T17:20:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "MyPicGallery 1.0 allows remote attackers to bypass application authentication and gain administrative access by setting the userID parameter to \"admin\" in a direct request to admin/addUser.php.",
"id": "GHSA-rggq-3jwv-vjh4",
"modified": "2022-05-01T23:49:06Z",
"published": "2022-05-01T23:49:06Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2008-2347"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://exchange.xforce.ibmcloud.com/vulnerabilities/42507"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.exploit-db.com/exploits/5650"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/29272"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-RGH5-46M9-6GC9
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 19:10 – Updated: 2022-07-13 00:01A vulnerability in the Form_Login function of TOTOLINK A720R A720R_Firmware V4.1.5cu.470_B20200911 allows attackers to bypass authentication.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-35324"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-08-05T21:15:00Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "A vulnerability in the Form_Login function of TOTOLINK A720R A720R_Firmware V4.1.5cu.470_B20200911 allows attackers to bypass authentication.",
"id": "GHSA-rgh5-46m9-6gc9",
"modified": "2022-07-13T00:01:28Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T19:10:04Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-35324"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/hurricane618/my_cves/blob/master/router/totolink/A720R_login_bypass.md"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-RGJG-66CX-5X9M
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-02-15 01:57 – Updated: 2023-10-02 12:01Grafana before 4.6.4 and 5.x before 5.2.3 allows authentication bypass because an attacker can generate a valid "remember me" cookie knowing only a username of an LDAP or OAuth user.
Specific Go Packages Affected
github.com/grafana/grafana/pkg/api
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Go",
"name": "github.com/grafana/grafana"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "4.6.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "Go",
"name": "github.com/grafana/grafana"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "5.0.0"
},
{
"fixed": "5.2.3"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-15727"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-287"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2021-05-20T21:09:16Z",
"nvd_published_at": null,
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "Grafana before 4.6.4 and 5.x before 5.2.3 allows authentication bypass because an attacker can generate a valid \"remember me\" cookie knowing only a username of an LDAP or OAuth user.\n\n### Specific Go Packages Affected\ngithub.com/grafana/grafana/pkg/api",
"id": "GHSA-rgjg-66cx-5x9m",
"modified": "2023-10-02T12:01:50Z",
"published": "2022-02-15T01:57:18Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-15727"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/grafana/grafana/commit/7baecf0d0deae0d865e45cf03e082bc0db3f28c3"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/grafana/grafana/commit/df83bf10a225811927644bdf6265fa80bdea9137"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2018:3829"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:0019"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://grafana.com/blog/2018/08/29/grafana-5.2.3-and-4.6.4-released-with-important-security-fix"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.securityfocus.com/bid/105184"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
],
"summary": "Grafana Authentication Bypass"
}
Mitigation
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
Use an authentication framework or library such as the OWASP ESAPI Authentication feature.
CAPEC-114: Authentication Abuse
An attacker obtains unauthorized access to an application, service or device either through knowledge of the inherent weaknesses of an authentication mechanism, or by exploiting a flaw in the authentication scheme's implementation. In such an attack an authentication mechanism is functioning but a carefully controlled sequence of events causes the mechanism to grant access to the attacker.
CAPEC-115: Authentication Bypass
An attacker gains access to application, service, or device with the privileges of an authorized or privileged user by evading or circumventing an authentication mechanism. The attacker is therefore able to access protected data without authentication ever having taken place.
CAPEC-151: Identity Spoofing
Identity Spoofing refers to the action of assuming (i.e., taking on) the identity of some other entity (human or non-human) and then using that identity to accomplish a goal. An adversary may craft messages that appear to come from a different principle or use stolen / spoofed authentication credentials.
CAPEC-194: Fake the Source of Data
An adversary takes advantage of improper authentication to provide data or services under a falsified identity. The purpose of using the falsified identity may be to prevent traceability of the provided data or to assume the rights granted to another individual. One of the simplest forms of this attack would be the creation of an email message with a modified "From" field in order to appear that the message was sent from someone other than the actual sender. The root of the attack (in this case the email system) fails to properly authenticate the source and this results in the reader incorrectly performing the instructed action. Results of the attack vary depending on the details of the attack, but common results include privilege escalation, obfuscation of other attacks, and data corruption/manipulation.
CAPEC-22: Exploiting Trust in Client
An attack of this type exploits vulnerabilities in client/server communication channel authentication and data integrity. It leverages the implicit trust a server places in the client, or more importantly, that which the server believes is the client. An attacker executes this type of attack by communicating directly with the server where the server believes it is communicating only with a valid client. There are numerous variations of this type of attack.
CAPEC-57: Utilizing REST's Trust in the System Resource to Obtain Sensitive Data
This attack utilizes a REST(REpresentational State Transfer)-style applications' trust in the system resources and environment to obtain sensitive data once SSL is terminated.
CAPEC-593: Session Hijacking
This type of attack involves an adversary that exploits weaknesses in an application's use of sessions in performing authentication. The adversary is able to steal or manipulate an active session and use it to gain unathorized access to the application.
CAPEC-633: Token Impersonation
An adversary exploits a weakness in authentication to create an access token (or equivalent) that impersonates a different entity, and then associates a process/thread to that that impersonated token. This action causes a downstream user to make a decision or take action that is based on the assumed identity, and not the response that blocks the adversary.
CAPEC-650: Upload a Web Shell to a Web Server
By exploiting insufficient permissions, it is possible to upload a web shell to a web server in such a way that it can be executed remotely. This shell can have various capabilities, thereby acting as a "gateway" to the underlying web server. The shell might execute at the higher permission level of the web server, providing the ability the execute malicious code at elevated levels.
CAPEC-94: Adversary in the Middle (AiTM)
An adversary targets the communication between two components (typically client and server), in order to alter or obtain data from transactions. A general approach entails the adversary placing themself within the communication channel between the two components.