Common Weakness Enumeration
CWE-125
AllowedOut-of-bounds Read
Abstraction: Base · Status: Draft
The product reads data past the end, or before the beginning, of the intended buffer.
11494 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-8PW7-C9XP-V252
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:31 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:31
VLAI
Details
A vulnerability in the Portable Document Format (PDF) scanning functionality of Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) Software versions 0.101.1 and prior could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to cause a denial of service (DoS) condition on an affected device. The vulnerability is due to a lack of proper data handling mechanisms within the device buffer while indexing remaining file data on an affected device. An attacker could exploit this vulnerability by sending crafted PDF files to an affected device. A successful exploit could allow the attacker to cause a heap buffer out-of-bounds read condition, resulting in a crash that could result in a denial of service condition on an affected device.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-1787"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-04-08T19:29:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "A vulnerability in the Portable Document Format (PDF) scanning functionality of Clam AntiVirus (ClamAV) Software versions 0.101.1 and prior could allow an unauthenticated, remote attacker to cause a denial of service (DoS) condition on an affected device. The vulnerability is due to a lack of proper data handling mechanisms within the device buffer while indexing remaining file data on an affected device. An attacker could exploit this vulnerability by sending crafted PDF files to an affected device. A successful exploit could allow the attacker to cause a heap buffer out-of-bounds read condition, resulting in a crash that could result in a denial of service condition on an affected device.",
"id": "GHSA-8pw7-c9xp-v252",
"modified": "2022-05-13T01:31:20Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:31:20Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-1787"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugs.chromium.org/p/oss-fuzz/issues/detail?id=12181"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2019/04/msg00019.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/201904-12"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2019-04/msg00062.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2019-04/msg00064.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q27-XC9C-9WJR
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 01:06 – Updated: 2022-05-14 01:06
VLAI
Details
An invalid memory read vulnerability was found in the function OpCode (called from isLogicalOp and decompileIF) in util/decompile.c in Ming 0.4.8, which allows attackers to cause a denial of service via a crafted file.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2017-11731"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2017-07-29T05:29:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "An invalid memory read vulnerability was found in the function OpCode (called from isLogicalOp and decompileIF) in util/decompile.c in Ming 0.4.8, which allows attackers to cause a denial of service via a crafted file.",
"id": "GHSA-8q27-xc9c-9wjr",
"modified": "2022-05-14T01:06:50Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T01:06:50Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-11731"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libming/libming/issues/84"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/201904-24"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://somevulnsofadlab.blogspot.jp/2017/07/libminginvalid-memory-read-in-opcode.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q2X-X7HH-J593
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 16:54 – Updated: 2022-11-16 19:00
VLAI
Details
drivers/media/usb/dvb-usb/technisat-usb2.c in the Linux kernel through 5.2.9 has an out-of-bounds read via crafted USB device traffic (which may be remote via usbip or usbredir).
Severity
9.8 (Critical)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-15505"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-08-23T06:15:00Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "drivers/media/usb/dvb-usb/technisat-usb2.c in the Linux kernel through 5.2.9 has an out-of-bounds read via crafted USB device traffic (which may be remote via usbip or usbredir).",
"id": "GHSA-8q2x-x7hh-j593",
"modified": "2022-11-16T19:00:32Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T16:54:40Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-15505"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4163-2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4163-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4162-2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4162-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4157-2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4157-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.f5.com/csp/article/K28222050?utm_source=f5support\u0026amp;utm_medium=RSS"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.f5.com/csp/article/K28222050"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.netapp.com/advisory/ntap-20190905-0002"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://seclists.org/bugtraq/2019/Nov/11"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lore.kernel.org/lkml/b9b256cb-95f2-5fa1-9956-5a602a017c11@gmail.com"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lore.kernel.org/linux-media/20190821104408.w7krumcglxo6fz5q@gofer.mess.org"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/T4JZ6AEUKFWBHQAROGMQARJ274PQP2QP"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.fedoraproject.org/archives/list/package-announce@lists.fedoraproject.org/message/O3RUDQJXRJQVGHCGR4YZWTQ3ECBI7TXH"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2020/03/msg00001.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://lists.debian.org/debian-lts-announce/2020/01/msg00013.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.linuxtv.org/media_tree.git/commit/?id=0c4df39e504bf925ab666132ac3c98d6cbbe380b"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://packetstormsecurity.com/files/155212/Slackware-Security-Advisory-Slackware-14.2-kernel-Updates.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q3Q-GP2G-FCXF
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:32 – Updated: 2023-01-09 18:30
VLAI
Details
An out-of-bounds read was addressed with improved input validation. This issue is fixed in iOS 13.6 and iPadOS 13.6, macOS Catalina 10.15.6, tvOS 13.4.8, watchOS 6.2.8, iTunes 12.10.8 for Windows, iCloud for Windows 11.3, iCloud for Windows 7.20. Processing a maliciously crafted image may lead to arbitrary code execution.
Severity
7.8 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-9873"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2020-10-22T18:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "An out-of-bounds read was addressed with improved input validation. This issue is fixed in iOS 13.6 and iPadOS 13.6, macOS Catalina 10.15.6, tvOS 13.4.8, watchOS 6.2.8, iTunes 12.10.8 for Windows, iCloud for Windows 11.3, iCloud for Windows 7.20. Processing a maliciously crafted image may lead to arbitrary code execution.",
"id": "GHSA-8q3q-gp2g-fcxf",
"modified": "2023-01-09T18:30:25Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:32:05Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-9873"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211288"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211289"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211290"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211291"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211293"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211294"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/kb/HT211295"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q3V-WQ9H-7767
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-03-28 21:30 – Updated: 2023-03-28 21:30
VLAI
Details
Adobe Dimension versions 3.4.7 (and earlier) is affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-26343"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-03-28T20:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Adobe Dimension versions 3.4.7 (and earlier) is affected by an out-of-bounds read vulnerability that could lead to disclosure of sensitive memory. An attacker could leverage this vulnerability to bypass mitigations such as ASLR. Exploitation of this issue requires user interaction in that a victim must open a malicious file.",
"id": "GHSA-8q3v-wq9h-7767",
"modified": "2023-03-28T21:30:18Z",
"published": "2023-03-28T21:30:18Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-26343"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://helpx.adobe.com/security/products/dimension/apsb23-20.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q59-68WH-W68X
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 16:48 – Updated: 2023-03-01 18:30
VLAI
Details
An issue was discovered in the Binary File Descriptor (BFD) library (aka libbfd), as distributed in GNU Binutils 2.32. There is a heap-based buffer over-read in _bfd_doprnt in bfd.c because elf_object_p in elfcode.h mishandles an e_shstrndx section of type SHT_GROUP by omitting a trailing '\0' character.
Severity
5.5 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-12972"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-06-26T14:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "An issue was discovered in the Binary File Descriptor (BFD) library (aka libbfd), as distributed in GNU Binutils 2.32. There is a heap-based buffer over-read in _bfd_doprnt in bfd.c because elf_object_p in elfcode.h mishandles an e_shstrndx section of type SHT_GROUP by omitting a trailing \u0027\\0\u0027 character.",
"id": "GHSA-8q59-68wh-w68x",
"modified": "2023-03-01T18:30:57Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T16:48:41Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-12972"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/202007-39"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://sourceware.org/bugzilla/show_bug.cgi?id=24689"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://sourceware.org/git/gitweb.cgi?p=binutils-gdb.git;h=890f750a3b053532a4b839a2dd6243076de12031"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4336-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2020-10/msg00078.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2020-11/msg00004.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/108903"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q5M-FC2M-6JRJ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:48 – Updated: 2022-07-11 00:00
VLAI
Details
An issue was discovered in gpac before 1.0.1. The abst_box_read function in box_code_adobe.c has a heap-based buffer over-read.
Severity
7.1 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-23928"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-04-21T18:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "An issue was discovered in gpac before 1.0.1. The abst_box_read function in box_code_adobe.c has a heap-based buffer over-read.",
"id": "GHSA-8q5m-fc2m-6jrj",
"modified": "2022-07-11T00:00:18Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:48:03Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-23928"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/gpac/gpac/issues/1568"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/gpac/gpac/issues/1569"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/gpac/gpac/commit/8e05648d6b4459facbc783025c5c42d301fef5c3"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://cwe.mitre.org/data/definitions/126.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q76-C96G-J64J
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-05-10 00:33 – Updated: 2026-05-10 00:33
VLAI
Details
A vulnerability has been found in OSGeo gdal up to 3.13.0dev-4. Affected by this issue is the function GDSDfldsrch of the file frmts/hdf4/hdf-eos/GDapi.c of the component Grid File Handler. The manipulation leads to heap-based buffer overflow. An attack has to be approached locally. The exploit has been disclosed to the public and may be used. Upgrading to version 3.13.0RC1 can resolve this issue. The identifier of the patch is 3e04c0385630e4d42517046d9a4967dfccfeb7fd. It is suggested to upgrade the affected component.
Severity
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-8213"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-119",
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-05-09T23:16:33Z",
"severity": "LOW"
},
"details": "A vulnerability has been found in OSGeo gdal up to 3.13.0dev-4. Affected by this issue is the function GDSDfldsrch of the file frmts/hdf4/hdf-eos/GDapi.c of the component Grid File Handler. The manipulation leads to heap-based buffer overflow. An attack has to be approached locally. The exploit has been disclosed to the public and may be used. Upgrading to version 3.13.0RC1 can resolve this issue. The identifier of the patch is 3e04c0385630e4d42517046d9a4967dfccfeb7fd. It is suggested to upgrade the affected component.",
"id": "GHSA-8q76-c96g-j64j",
"modified": "2026-05-10T00:33:21Z",
"published": "2026-05-10T00:33:21Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-8213"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/OSGeo/gdal/issues/14399"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/OSGeo/gdal/commit/3e04c0385630e4d42517046d9a4967dfccfeb7fd"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/OSGeo/gdal"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/OSGeo/gdal/releases/tag/v3.13.0RC1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/biniamf/pocs/tree/main/gdal-gdsdfldsrch_oob-read"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://vuldb.com/submit/808128"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://vuldb.com/vuln/362430"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://vuldb.com/vuln/362430/cti"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:L/I:L/A:L",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
},
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:L/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:N/VC:L/VI:L/VA:L/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N/E:P/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q99-37VX-7HJM
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 01:28 – Updated: 2022-05-14 01:28
VLAI
Details
An out-of-bounds read was addressed with improved bounds checking. This issue is fixed in iOS 12.1.3, macOS Mojave 10.14.3, iTunes 12.9.3 for Windows. A malicious application may be able to elevate privileges.
Severity
7.8 (High)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2019-6221"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2019-03-05T16:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "An out-of-bounds read was addressed with improved bounds checking. This issue is fixed in iOS 12.1.3, macOS Mojave 10.14.3, iTunes 12.9.3 for Windows. A malicious application may be able to elevate privileges.",
"id": "GHSA-8q99-37vx-7hjm",
"modified": "2022-05-14T01:28:46Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T01:28:46Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-6221"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/HT209443"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/HT209446"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://support.apple.com/HT209450"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/106694"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-8Q9J-479X-6G5G
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-06-28 18:30 – Updated: 2024-04-04 05:15
VLAI
Details
In initiateHs20IconQueryInternal of sta_iface.cpp, there is a possible out of bounds read due to improper input validation. This could lead to local information disclosure with System execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.Product: AndroidVersions: Android-13Android ID: A-262236331
Severity
4.4 (Medium)
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-21210"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-125"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-06-28T18:15:15Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In initiateHs20IconQueryInternal of sta_iface.cpp, there is a possible out of bounds read due to improper input validation. This could lead to local information disclosure with System execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.Product: AndroidVersions: Android-13Android ID: A-262236331",
"id": "GHSA-8q9j-479x-6g5g",
"modified": "2024-04-04T05:15:47Z",
"published": "2023-06-28T18:30:26Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-21210"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/security/bulletin/pixel/2023-06-01"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:H/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
Mitigation MIT-5
Implementation
Strategy: Input Validation
- Assume all input is malicious. Use an "accept known good" input validation strategy, i.e., use a list of acceptable inputs that strictly conform to specifications. Reject any input that does not strictly conform to specifications, or transform it into something that does.
- When performing input validation, consider all potentially relevant properties, including length, type of input, the full range of acceptable values, missing or extra inputs, syntax, consistency across related fields, and conformance to business rules. As an example of business rule logic, "boat" may be syntactically valid because it only contains alphanumeric characters, but it is not valid if the input is only expected to contain colors such as "red" or "blue."
- Do not rely exclusively on looking for malicious or malformed inputs. This is likely to miss at least one undesirable input, especially if the code's environment changes. This can give attackers enough room to bypass the intended validation. However, denylists can be useful for detecting potential attacks or determining which inputs are so malformed that they should be rejected outright.
- To reduce the likelihood of introducing an out-of-bounds read, ensure that you validate and ensure correct calculations for any length argument, buffer size calculation, or offset. Be especially careful of relying on a sentinel (i.e. special character such as NUL) in untrusted inputs.
Mitigation
Architecture and Design
Strategy: Language Selection
Use a language that provides appropriate memory abstractions.
CAPEC-540: Overread Buffers
An adversary attacks a target by providing input that causes an application to read beyond the boundary of a defined buffer. This typically occurs when a value influencing where to start or stop reading is set to reflect positions outside of the valid memory location of the buffer. This type of attack may result in exposure of sensitive information, a system crash, or arbitrary code execution.