Common Weakness Enumeration

CWE-532

Allowed

Insertion of Sensitive Information into Log File

Abstraction: Base · Status: Incomplete

The product writes sensitive information to a log file.

1745 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.

GHSA-43M8-WXPM-8HM7

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-03-13 12:31 – Updated: 2024-03-13 12:31
VLAI
Details

IBM Maximo Application Suite - Maximo Mobile for EAM 8.10 and 8.11 could disclose sensitive information to a local user. IBM X-Force ID: 266875.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2023-43043"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2024-03-13T10:15:07Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "IBM Maximo Application Suite - Maximo Mobile for EAM 8.10 and 8.11 could disclose sensitive information to a local user.  IBM X-Force ID:  266875.",
  "id": "GHSA-43m8-wxpm-8hm7",
  "modified": "2024-03-13T12:31:06Z",
  "published": "2024-03-13T12:31:06Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-43043"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://exchange.xforce.ibmcloud.com/vulnerabilities/266875"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.ibm.com/support/pages/node/7138286"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:H/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-4524-CJ9J-G4FJ

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-03-13 20:05 – Updated: 2026-03-16 17:07
VLAI
Summary
OneUptime: Password Reset Token Logged at INFO Level
Details

Summary

The password reset flow logs the complete password reset URL — containing the plaintext reset token — at INFO log level, which is enabled by default in production. Anyone with access to application logs (log aggregation, Docker logs, Kubernetes pod logs) can intercept reset tokens and perform account takeover on any user.

Details

Vulnerable code — App/FeatureSet/Identity/API/Authentication.ts lines 370-371:

logger.info("User forgot password: " + user.email?.toString());
logger.info("Reset Password URL: " + tokenVerifyUrl);

The tokenVerifyUrl is a complete URL like https://app.oneuptime.com/accounts/reset-password/<plaintext-token>. This is logged at INFO level, which is enabled by default in production and persisted to stdout, log files, and any configured log aggregation systems.

Additionally — login credentials logged at DEBUG level (line 909):

logger.debug("Login request data: " + JSON.stringify(req.body, null, 2));

The entire login request body (including cleartext password) is logged at DEBUG level. While DEBUG is typically disabled in production, it is commonly enabled during incident troubleshooting.

No existing CVEs cover sensitive data exposure in logging for OneUptime. CVE-2026-30956 (GHSA-r5v6-2599-9g3m) leaked resetPasswordToken from the database via multi-tenant header bypass — this finding is different (token leaked via application logs).

PoC

Environment: OneUptime v10.0.23 via docker compose up (default configuration)

# Step 1 — Trigger forgot-password for target user
curl -s -X POST http://TARGET:8080/api/identity/forgot-password \
  -H 'Content-Type: application/json' \
  -d '{"data": {"email": "test@example.com"}}'
# Response: {}

# Step 2 — Read application logs to extract the reset token
docker compose logs app --tail 5
# Output:
# app-1  | User forgot password: test@example.com
# app-1  | Reset Password URL: http://localhost/accounts/reset-password/20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef

# Step 3 — Use the extracted token to reset the victim's password
curl -s -X POST http://TARGET:8080/api/identity/reset-password \
  -H 'Content-Type: application/json' \
  -d '{"data": {"token": "20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef", "password": "NewPassword123!"}}'

Tested and confirmed on 2026-03-12 against oneuptime/app:release (APP_VERSION=10.0.23). Full password reset token 20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef visible in INFO-level logs.

Attack surface for log access: ELK/Elasticsearch dashboards (often misconfigured with default credentials), CloudWatch/Datadog/Splunk/Grafana Loki, docker logs / kubectl logs, shared log volumes, CDN/proxy access logs.

Impact

Any user's account can be taken over by anyone with read access to application logs:

  • Account takeover: Every password reset token is logged in plaintext, creating a persistent trail of sensitive tokens
  • Exposure scale: This logs EVERY password reset request — not a one-off, but systematic
  • Cascading impact: Combined with differential error responses in forgot-password (user enumeration), an attacker can systematically target any user
  • Organizations that aggregate OneUptime logs into shared logging infrastructure expose all password reset tokens to anyone with log reader access
Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [
    {
      "package": {
        "ecosystem": "npm",
        "name": "oneuptime"
      },
      "ranges": [
        {
          "events": [
            {
              "introduced": "0"
            },
            {
              "fixed": "10.0.23"
            }
          ],
          "type": "ECOSYSTEM"
        }
      ]
    }
  ],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-32598"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": true,
    "github_reviewed_at": "2026-03-13T20:05:12Z",
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-03-13T19:55:09Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "### Summary\n\nThe password reset flow logs the complete password reset URL \u2014 containing the plaintext reset token \u2014 at INFO log level, which is enabled by default in production. Anyone with access to application logs (log aggregation, Docker logs, Kubernetes pod logs) can intercept reset tokens and perform account takeover on any user.\n\n### Details\n\n**Vulnerable code \u2014 `App/FeatureSet/Identity/API/Authentication.ts` lines 370-371:**\n```typescript\nlogger.info(\"User forgot password: \" + user.email?.toString());\nlogger.info(\"Reset Password URL: \" + tokenVerifyUrl);\n```\n\nThe `tokenVerifyUrl` is a complete URL like `https://app.oneuptime.com/accounts/reset-password/\u003cplaintext-token\u003e`. This is logged at INFO level, which is enabled by default in production and persisted to stdout, log files, and any configured log aggregation systems.\n\n**Additionally \u2014 login credentials logged at DEBUG level (line 909):**\n```typescript\nlogger.debug(\"Login request data: \" + JSON.stringify(req.body, null, 2));\n```\n\nThe entire login request body (including cleartext password) is logged at DEBUG level. While DEBUG is typically disabled in production, it is commonly enabled during incident troubleshooting.\n\nNo existing CVEs cover sensitive data exposure in logging for OneUptime. CVE-2026-30956 (GHSA-r5v6-2599-9g3m) leaked `resetPasswordToken` from the database via multi-tenant header bypass \u2014 this finding is different (token leaked via application logs).\n\n### PoC\n\n**Environment:** OneUptime v10.0.23 via `docker compose up` (default configuration)\n\n```bash\n# Step 1 \u2014 Trigger forgot-password for target user\ncurl -s -X POST http://TARGET:8080/api/identity/forgot-password \\\n  -H \u0027Content-Type: application/json\u0027 \\\n  -d \u0027{\"data\": {\"email\": \"test@example.com\"}}\u0027\n# Response: {}\n\n# Step 2 \u2014 Read application logs to extract the reset token\ndocker compose logs app --tail 5\n# Output:\n# app-1  | User forgot password: test@example.com\n# app-1  | Reset Password URL: http://localhost/accounts/reset-password/20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef\n\n# Step 3 \u2014 Use the extracted token to reset the victim\u0027s password\ncurl -s -X POST http://TARGET:8080/api/identity/reset-password \\\n  -H \u0027Content-Type: application/json\u0027 \\\n  -d \u0027{\"data\": {\"token\": \"20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef\", \"password\": \"NewPassword123!\"}}\u0027\n```\n\n**Tested and confirmed on 2026-03-12 against `oneuptime/app:release` (APP_VERSION=10.0.23).** Full password reset token `20771cc6-860a-4b9b-bb9c-09eff67de4ef` visible in INFO-level logs.\n\n**Attack surface for log access:** ELK/Elasticsearch dashboards (often misconfigured with default credentials), CloudWatch/Datadog/Splunk/Grafana Loki, `docker logs` / `kubectl logs`, shared log volumes, CDN/proxy access logs.\n\n### Impact\n\nAny user\u0027s account can be taken over by anyone with read access to application logs:\n\n- **Account takeover:** Every password reset token is logged in plaintext, creating a persistent trail of sensitive tokens\n- **Exposure scale:** This logs EVERY password reset request \u2014 not a one-off, but systematic\n- **Cascading impact:** Combined with differential error responses in forgot-password (user enumeration), an attacker can systematically target any user\n- Organizations that aggregate OneUptime logs into shared logging infrastructure expose all password reset tokens to anyone with log reader access",
  "id": "GHSA-4524-cj9j-g4fj",
  "modified": "2026-03-16T17:07:40Z",
  "published": "2026-03-13T20:05:12Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/OneUptime/oneuptime/security/advisories/GHSA-4524-cj9j-g4fj"
    },
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-32598"
    },
    {
      "type": "PACKAGE",
      "url": "https://github.com/OneUptime/oneuptime"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://github.com/OneUptime/oneuptime/releases/tag/10.0.23"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:L/AC:L/AT:N/PR:N/UI:N/VC:H/VI:N/VA:N/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V4"
    }
  ],
  "summary": "OneUptime: Password Reset Token Logged at INFO Level"
}

GHSA-452R-R77C-2P69

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-17 03:00 – Updated: 2025-04-20 03:32
VLAI
Details

An issue was discovered on SendQuick Entera and Avera devices before 2HF16. An attacker could request and download the SMS logs from an unauthenticated perspective.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2017-5137"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2017-02-05T18:59:00Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "An issue was discovered on SendQuick Entera and Avera devices before 2HF16. An attacker could request and download the SMS logs from an unauthenticated perspective.",
  "id": "GHSA-452r-r77c-2p69",
  "modified": "2025-04-20T03:32:23Z",
  "published": "2022-05-17T03:00:54Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-5137"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://niantech.io/blog/2017/02/05/vulns-multiple-vulns-in-sendquick-entera-avera-sms-gateway-appliances"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/96031"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-454M-V4GH-W6C2

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-04-14 18:30 – Updated: 2026-04-14 18:30
VLAI
Details

Insertion of sensitive information into log file in Windows Kernel allows an authorized attacker to disclose information locally.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2026-32217"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2026-04-14T18:17:29Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "Insertion of sensitive information into log file in Windows Kernel allows an authorized attacker to disclose information locally.",
  "id": "GHSA-454m-v4gh-w6c2",
  "modified": "2026-04-14T18:30:42Z",
  "published": "2026-04-14T18:30:42Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-32217"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://msrc.microsoft.com/update-guide/vulnerability/CVE-2026-32217"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-456R-H9VM-XCMJ

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-09-26 06:30 – Updated: 2025-09-26 06:30
VLAI
Details

The Featured Image from URL (FIFU) plugin for WordPress is vulnerable to Sensitive Information Exposure in all versions up to, and including, 5.2.7 through publicly exposed log files. This makes it possible for unauthenticated attackers to view potentially sensitive information contained in the exposed log files.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2025-9985"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2025-09-26T05:15:36Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "The Featured Image from URL (FIFU) plugin for WordPress is vulnerable to Sensitive Information Exposure in all versions up to, and including, 5.2.7 through publicly exposed log files. This makes it possible for unauthenticated attackers to view potentially sensitive information contained in the exposed log files.",
  "id": "GHSA-456r-h9vm-xcmj",
  "modified": "2025-09-26T06:30:49Z",
  "published": "2025-09-26T06:30:49Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-9985"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://plugins.trac.wordpress.org/browser/featured-image-from-url/trunk/admin/log.php?rev=3344903"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://plugins.trac.wordpress.org/changeset?sfp_email=\u0026sfph_mail=\u0026reponame=\u0026old=3362830%40featured-image-from-url\u0026new=3362830%40featured-image-from-url\u0026sfp_email=\u0026sfph_mail=#file6"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.wordfence.com/threat-intel/vulnerabilities/id/991d63da-ca6c-400e-beb7-b44cf629abc9?source=cve"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:L/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-457F-XP3M-RV66

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:14 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:14
VLAI
Details

It was discovered that a world-readable log file belonging to Candlepin component of Red Hat Satellite 6.4 leaked the credentials of the Candlepin database. A malicious user with local access to a Satellite host can use those credentials to modify the database and prevent Satellite from fetching package updates, thus preventing all Satellite hosts from accessing those updates.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2019-3891"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2019-04-15T12:31:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "It was discovered that a world-readable log file belonging to Candlepin component of Red Hat Satellite 6.4 leaked the credentials of the Candlepin database. A malicious user with local access to a Satellite host can use those credentials to modify the database and prevent Satellite from fetching package updates, thus preventing all Satellite hosts from accessing those updates.",
  "id": "GHSA-457f-xp3m-rv66",
  "modified": "2022-05-13T01:14:33Z",
  "published": "2022-05-13T01:14:33Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2019-3891"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2019:1222"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=CVE-2019-3891"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-45W9-4PGF-X3FR

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-07-07 00:00 – Updated: 2022-07-15 00:00
VLAI
Details

HCL Launch may store certain data for recurring activities in a plain text format.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2022-27549"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-312",
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2022-07-06T21:15:00Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "HCL Launch may store certain data for recurring activities in a plain text format.",
  "id": "GHSA-45w9-4pgf-x3fr",
  "modified": "2022-07-15T00:00:17Z",
  "published": "2022-07-07T00:00:22Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2022-27549"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://support.hcltechsw.com/csm?id=kb_article\u0026sysparm_article=KB0099254"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:N/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-4697-7F5R-FHWX

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-17 02:57 – Updated: 2022-05-17 02:57
VLAI
Details

Log files generated by Lenovo XClarity Administrator (LXCA) versions earlier than 1.2.2 may contain user credentials in a non-secure, clear text form that could be viewed by a non-privileged user.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2016-8233"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2017-03-01T22:59:00Z",
    "severity": "CRITICAL"
  },
  "details": "Log files generated by Lenovo XClarity Administrator (LXCA) versions earlier than 1.2.2 may contain user credentials in a non-secure, clear text form that could be viewed by a non-privileged user.",
  "id": "GHSA-4697-7f5r-fhwx",
  "modified": "2022-05-17T02:57:05Z",
  "published": "2022-05-17T02:57:05Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2016-8233"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://support.lenovo.com/us/en/product_security/LEN-11635"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/95992"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-469R-4M5M-6P66

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-06-14 06:34 – Updated: 2024-07-04 06:35
VLAI
Details

The session cookies, used for authentication, are stored in clear-text logs. An attacker can retrieve authentication sessions. A remote attacker can retrieve the credentials and bypass the authentication mechanism. As for the affected products/models/versions, see the reference URL.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2024-27156"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2024-06-14T04:15:18Z",
    "severity": "MODERATE"
  },
  "details": "The session cookies, used for authentication, are stored in clear-text logs. An attacker can retrieve authentication sessions. A remote attacker can retrieve the credentials and bypass the authentication mechanism. As for the affected products/models/versions, see the reference URL.",
  "id": "GHSA-469r-4m5m-6p66",
  "modified": "2024-07-04T06:35:03Z",
  "published": "2024-06-14T06:34:46Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-27156"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://jvn.jp/en/vu/JVNVU97136265/index.html"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.toshibatec.com/information/20240531_01.html"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://www.toshibatec.com/information/pdf/information20240531_01.pdf"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "http://seclists.org/fulldisclosure/2024/Jul/1"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:L/A:N",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

GHSA-46V9-494M-J4HJ

Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:48 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:48
VLAI
Details

An information disclosure in ovirt-hosted-engine-setup prior to 2.2.7 reveals the root user's password in the log file.

Show details on source website

{
  "affected": [],
  "aliases": [
    "CVE-2018-1000018"
  ],
  "database_specific": {
    "cwe_ids": [
      "CWE-532"
    ],
    "github_reviewed": false,
    "github_reviewed_at": null,
    "nvd_published_at": "2018-01-24T14:29:00Z",
    "severity": "HIGH"
  },
  "details": "An information disclosure in ovirt-hosted-engine-setup prior to 2.2.7 reveals the root user\u0027s password in the log file.",
  "id": "GHSA-46v9-494m-j4hj",
  "modified": "2022-05-13T01:48:29Z",
  "published": "2022-05-13T01:48:29Z",
  "references": [
    {
      "type": "ADVISORY",
      "url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-1000018"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1536941"
    },
    {
      "type": "WEB",
      "url": "https://gerrit.ovirt.org/#/c/86635"
    }
  ],
  "schema_version": "1.4.0",
  "severity": [
    {
      "score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
      "type": "CVSS_V3"
    }
  ]
}

Mitigation
Architecture and Design Implementation

Consider seriously the sensitivity of the information written into log files. Do not write secrets into the log files.

Mitigation
Distribution

Remove debug log files before deploying the application into production.

Mitigation
Operation

Protect log files against unauthorized read/write.

Mitigation
Implementation

Adjust configurations appropriately when software is transitioned from a debug state to production.

CAPEC-215: Fuzzing for application mapping

An attacker sends random, malformed, or otherwise unexpected messages to a target application and observes the application's log or error messages returned. The attacker does not initially know how a target will respond to individual messages but by attempting a large number of message variants they may find a variant that trigger's desired behavior. In this attack, the purpose of the fuzzing is to observe the application's log and error messages, although fuzzing a target can also sometimes cause the target to enter an unstable state, causing a crash.