CWE-190
AllowedInteger Overflow or Wraparound
Abstraction: Base · Status: Stable
The product performs a calculation that can produce an integer overflow or wraparound when the logic assumes that the resulting value will always be larger than the original value. This occurs when an integer value is incremented to a value that is too large to store in the associated representation. When this occurs, the value may become a very small or negative number.
4594 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-X222-PX97-5M97
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-09-01 15:31 – Updated: 2026-09-01 15:31A denial-of-service security issue exists within RSLinx® Classic. The security issue stems from improper handling of a malformed packet. A crafted CIP packet can cause the RSLinx® Classic service to crash, requiring a restart of the service to recover
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-9621"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-09-01T14:17:49Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "A denial-of-service security issue exists within RSLinx\u00ae Classic. The security issue stems from improper handling of a malformed packet. A crafted CIP packet can cause the RSLinx\u00ae Classic service to crash, requiring a restart of the service to recover",
"id": "GHSA-x222-px97-5m97",
"modified": "2026-09-01T15:31:13Z",
"published": "2026-09-01T15:31:13Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-9621"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.rockwellautomation.com/en-us/trust-center/security-advisories/advisory.SD1794.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:N/AC:L/AT:N/PR:N/UI:N/VC:N/VI:N/VA:H/SC:N/SI:N/SA:H/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
GHSA-X25X-HHPJ-PJQP
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-05-17 15:31 – Updated: 2026-09-14 12:31In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:
bpf: Guard stack limits against 32bit overflow
This patch promotes the arithmetic around checking stack bounds to be
done in the 64-bit domain, instead of the current 32bit. The arithmetic
implies adding together a 64-bit register with a int offset. The
register was checked to be below 1<<29 when it was variable, but not
when it was fixed. The offset either comes from an instruction (in which
case it is 16 bit), from another register (in which case the caller
checked it to be below 1<<29 [1]), or from the size of an argument to a
kfunc (in which case it can be a u32 [2]). Between the register being
inconsistently checked to be below 1<<29, and the offset being up to an
u32, it appears that we were open to overflowing the ints which were
currently used for arithmetic.
[1] https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/815fb87b753055df2d9e50f6cd80eb10235fe3e9/kernel/bpf/verifier.c#L7494-L7498 [2] https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/815fb87b753055df2d9e50f6cd80eb10235fe3e9/kernel/bpf/verifier.c#L11904
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-52676"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2024-05-17T15:15:18Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In the Linux kernel, the following vulnerability has been resolved:\n\nbpf: Guard stack limits against 32bit overflow\n\nThis patch promotes the arithmetic around checking stack bounds to be\ndone in the 64-bit domain, instead of the current 32bit. The arithmetic\nimplies adding together a 64-bit register with a int offset. The\nregister was checked to be below 1\u003c\u003c29 when it was variable, but not\nwhen it was fixed. The offset either comes from an instruction (in which\ncase it is 16 bit), from another register (in which case the caller\nchecked it to be below 1\u003c\u003c29 [1]), or from the size of an argument to a\nkfunc (in which case it can be a u32 [2]). Between the register being\ninconsistently checked to be below 1\u003c\u003c29, and the offset being up to an\nu32, it appears that we were open to overflowing the `int`s which were\ncurrently used for arithmetic.\n\n[1] https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/815fb87b753055df2d9e50f6cd80eb10235fe3e9/kernel/bpf/verifier.c#L7494-L7498\n[2] https://github.com/torvalds/linux/blob/815fb87b753055df2d9e50f6cd80eb10235fe3e9/kernel/bpf/verifier.c#L11904",
"id": "GHSA-x25x-hhpj-pjqp",
"modified": "2026-09-14T12:31:25Z",
"published": "2024-05-17T15:31:11Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-52676"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/1d38a9ee81570c4bd61f557832dead4d6f816760"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/4ba97610399e83d29d1086a0827d33172539b49b"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/ad140fc856f0b1d5e2215bcb6d0cc247a86805a2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/ad1754f86a87fe74912fb542b23ff24ada4e3307"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/e160b2ed94a20fa940369ebd914277f88005e70d"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://git.kernel.org/stable/c/e5ad9ecb84405637df82732ee02ad741a5f782a6"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-X263-JXRF-C484
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-13 01:29 – Updated: 2022-05-13 01:29Integer overflow in the ISO parser in libarchive before 3.2.1 allows remote attackers to cause a denial of service (application crash) via a crafted ISO file.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2016-5844"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2016-09-21T14:25:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Integer overflow in the ISO parser in libarchive before 3.2.1 allows remote attackers to cause a denial of service (application crash) via a crafted ISO file.",
"id": "GHSA-x263-jxrf-c484",
"modified": "2022-05-13T01:29:30Z",
"published": "2022-05-13T01:29:30Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2016-5844"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libarchive/libarchive/issues/717"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/libarchive/libarchive/commit/3ad08e01b4d253c66ae56414886089684155af22"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://blog.fuzzing-project.org/48-Out-of-bounds-read-and-signed-integer-overflow-in-libarchive.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=1350280"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/201701-03"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://rhn.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2016-1844.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://rhn.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2016-1850.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.debian.org/security/2016/dsa-3657"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2016/06/23/6"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2016/06/24/4"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/topics/security/bulletinjul2016-3090568.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.oracle.com/technetwork/topics/security/linuxbulletinjul2016-3090544.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/91808"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securitytracker.com/id/1036173"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-X2CF-9Q9Q-FJPQ
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2023-03-24 21:30 – Updated: 2023-03-30 03:30In fdt_next_tag of fdt.c, there is a possible out of bounds write due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with System execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.Product: AndroidVersions: Android kernelAndroid ID: A-239630493References: N/A
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2023-21065"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2023-03-24T20:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In fdt_next_tag of fdt.c, there is a possible out of bounds write due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with System execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.Product: AndroidVersions: Android kernelAndroid ID: A-239630493References: N/A",
"id": "GHSA-x2cf-9q9q-fjpq",
"modified": "2023-03-30T03:30:39Z",
"published": "2023-03-24T21:30:53Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2023-21065"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/security/bulletin/pixel/2023-03-01"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:H/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-X2GQ-FC4Q-QPHG
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-02 03:16 – Updated: 2022-05-02 03:16Integer overflow in the gst_vorbis_tag_add_coverart function (gst-libs/gst/tag/gstvorbistag.c) in vorbistag in gst-plugins-base (aka gstreamer-plugins-base) before 0.10.23 in GStreamer allows context-dependent attackers to execute arbitrary code via a crafted COVERART tag that is converted from a base64 representation, which triggers a heap-based buffer overflow.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2009-0586"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2009-03-14T18:30:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Integer overflow in the gst_vorbis_tag_add_coverart function (gst-libs/gst/tag/gstvorbistag.c) in vorbistag in gst-plugins-base (aka gstreamer-plugins-base) before 0.10.23 in GStreamer allows context-dependent attackers to execute arbitrary code via a crafted COVERART tag that is converted from a base64 representation, which triggers a heap-based buffer overflow.",
"id": "GHSA-x2gq-fc4q-qphg",
"modified": "2022-05-02T03:16:43Z",
"published": "2022-05-02T03:16:43Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2009-0586"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/errata/RHSA-2009:0352"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://access.redhat.com/security/cve/CVE-2009-0586"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=488208"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://exchange.xforce.ibmcloud.com/vulnerabilities/49274"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://oval.cisecurity.org/repository/search/definition/oval%3Aorg.mitre.oval%3Adef%3A9694"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://cgit.freedesktop.org/gstreamer/gst-plugins-base/commit/?id=566583e87147f774e7fc4c78b5f7e61d427e40a9"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2009-04/msg00010.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://ocert.org/patches/2008-015/gst-plugins-base-CVE-2009-0586.diff"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2009/03/12/2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/34335"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/34350"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://secunia.com/advisories/35777"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://security.gentoo.org/glsa/glsa-200907-11.xml"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.mandriva.com/security/advisories?name=MDVSA-2009:085"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.ocert.org/advisories/ocert-2008-015.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/archive/1/501712/100/0/threaded"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.securityfocus.com/bid/34100"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.ubuntu.com/usn/USN-735-1"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-X2MC-H9JG-Q83C
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:36 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:36An issue was discovered in picoTCP 1.7.0. The code for parsing the hop-by-hop IPv6 extension headers does not validate the bounds of the extension header length value, which may result in Integer Wraparound. Therefore, a crafted extension header length value may cause Denial-of-Service because it affects the loop in which the extension headers are parsed in pico_ipv6_process_hopbyhop() in pico_ipv6.c.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-17442"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2020-12-11T23:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "An issue was discovered in picoTCP 1.7.0. The code for parsing the hop-by-hop IPv6 extension headers does not validate the bounds of the extension header length value, which may result in Integer Wraparound. Therefore, a crafted extension header length value may cause Denial-of-Service because it affects the loop in which the extension headers are parsed in pico_ipv6_process_hopbyhop() in pico_ipv6.c.",
"id": "GHSA-x2mc-h9jg-q83c",
"modified": "2022-05-24T17:36:10Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:36:10Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-17442"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://us-cert.cisa.gov/ics/advisories/icsa-20-343-01"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.kb.cert.org/vuls/id/815128"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-X2RF-C2QF-2C5J
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:02 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:02The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Bitpark, an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13638"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-09T06:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Bitpark, an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.",
"id": "GHSA-x2rf-c2qf-2c5j",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:02:43Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:02:43Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13638"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/GEMCHAIN/mint%20integer%20overflow.md"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/Bitpark"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-X2V2-FMWJ-V5HX
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-08-12 18:31 – Updated: 2025-08-12 18:31Integer overflow or wraparound in the Linux kernel-mode driver for some Intel(R) 800 Series Ethernet before version 1.17.2 may allow an authenticated user to potentially enable denial of service via local access.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-23241"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-08-12T17:15:32Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Integer overflow or wraparound in the Linux kernel-mode driver for some Intel(R) 800 Series Ethernet before version 1.17.2 may allow an authenticated user to potentially enable denial of service via local access.",
"id": "GHSA-x2v2-fmwj-v5hx",
"modified": "2025-08-12T18:31:28Z",
"published": "2025-08-12T18:31:28Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-23241"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://intel.com/content/www/us/en/security-center/advisory/intel-sa-01296.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:C/C:N/I:L/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
},
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:L/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:N/VC:N/VI:L/VA:H/SC:H/SI:H/SA:H/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
GHSA-X323-79P8-7QV5
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:44 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:44Multiple integer overflow parameters were found in the web administration panel on NETGEAR JGS516PE/GS116Ev2 v2.6.0.43 devices. Most of the integer parameters sent through the web server can be abused to cause a denial of service attack.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-35230"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-03-10T19:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "Multiple integer overflow parameters were found in the web administration panel on NETGEAR JGS516PE/GS116Ev2 v2.6.0.43 devices. Most of the integer parameters sent through the web server can be abused to cause a denial of service attack.",
"id": "GHSA-x323-79p8-7qv5",
"modified": "2022-05-24T17:44:04Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:44:04Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-35230"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://research.nccgroup.com/2021/03/08/technical-advisory-multiple-vulnerabilities-in-netgear-prosafe-plus-jgs516pe-gs116ev2-switches"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-X37V-WQ26-VJW7
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-10-01 18:32 – Updated: 2026-10-01 21:32Integer overflow in mod_dav_fs in Apache HTTP Server through 2.4.68 allows an authenticated WebDAV client with write access to crash worker processes and persistently corrupt a directory's property database via PROPPATCH requests declaring many XML namespaces.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2026-93546"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-10-01T17:17:33Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Integer overflow in mod_dav_fs in Apache HTTP Server through 2.4.68 allows an authenticated WebDAV client with write access to crash worker processes and persistently corrupt a directory\u0027s property database via PROPPATCH requests declaring many XML namespaces.",
"id": "GHSA-x37v-wq26-vjw7",
"modified": "2026-10-01T21:32:50Z",
"published": "2026-10-01T18:32:46Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2026-93546"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://httpd.apache.org/security/vulnerabilities_24.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2026/10/01/30"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
Mitigation
Ensure that all protocols are strictly defined, such that all out-of-bounds behavior can be identified simply, and require strict conformance to the protocol.
Mitigation MIT-3
Strategy: Language Selection
- Use a language that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid.
- If possible, choose a language or compiler that performs automatic bounds checking.
Mitigation MIT-4
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
- Use a vetted library or framework that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid [REF-1482].
- Use libraries or frameworks that make it easier to handle numbers without unexpected consequences.
- Examples include safe integer handling packages such as SafeInt (C++) or IntegerLib (C or C++). [REF-106]
Mitigation MIT-8
Strategy: Input Validation
- Perform input validation on any numeric input by ensuring that it is within the expected range. Enforce that the input meets both the minimum and maximum requirements for the expected range.
- Use unsigned integers where possible. This makes it easier to perform validation for integer overflows. When signed integers are required, ensure that the range check includes minimum values as well as maximum values.
Mitigation MIT-36
- Understand the programming language's underlying representation and how it interacts with numeric calculation (CWE-681). Pay close attention to byte size discrepancies, precision, signed/unsigned distinctions, truncation, conversion and casting between types, "not-a-number" calculations, and how the language handles numbers that are too large or too small for its underlying representation. [REF-7]
- Also be careful to account for 32-bit, 64-bit, and other potential differences that may affect the numeric representation.
Mitigation MIT-15
For any security checks that are performed on the client side, ensure that these checks are duplicated on the server side, in order to avoid CWE-602. Attackers can bypass the client-side checks by modifying values after the checks have been performed, or by changing the client to remove the client-side checks entirely. Then, these modified values would be submitted to the server.
Mitigation MIT-26
Strategy: Compilation or Build Hardening
Examine compiler warnings closely and eliminate problems with potential security implications, such as signed / unsigned mismatch in memory operations, or use of uninitialized variables. Even if the weakness is rarely exploitable, a single failure may lead to the compromise of the entire system.
CAPEC-92: Forced Integer Overflow
This attack forces an integer variable to go out of range. The integer variable is often used as an offset such as size of memory allocation or similarly. The attacker would typically control the value of such variable and try to get it out of range. For instance the integer in question is incremented past the maximum possible value, it may wrap to become a very small, or negative number, therefore providing a very incorrect value which can lead to unexpected behavior. At worst the attacker can execute arbitrary code.