CWE-190
AllowedInteger Overflow or Wraparound
Abstraction: Base · Status: Stable
The product performs a calculation that can produce an integer overflow or wraparound when the logic assumes that the resulting value will always be larger than the original value. This occurs when an integer value is incremented to a value that is too large to store in the associated representation. When this occurs, the value may become a very small or negative number.
3869 vulnerabilities reference this CWE, most recent first.
GHSA-2H67-2JH9-2X74
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 22:28 – Updated: 2022-07-30 00:00Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. A specially crafted MPEG-4 input in “stsc” decoder can cause an integer overflow due to unchecked arithmetic resulting in a heap-based buffer overflow that causes memory corruption. An attacker can convince a user to open a video to trigger this vulnerability.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-21845"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-119",
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-08-18T13:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Multiple exploitable integer overflow vulnerabilities exist within the MPEG-4 decoding functionality of the GPAC Project on Advanced Content library v1.0.1. A specially crafted MPEG-4 input in \u201cstsc\u201d decoder can cause an integer overflow due to unchecked arithmetic resulting in a heap-based buffer overflow that causes memory corruption. An attacker can convince a user to open a video to trigger this vulnerability.",
"id": "GHSA-2h67-2jh9-2x74",
"modified": "2022-07-30T00:00:41Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T22:28:04Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-21845"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://talosintelligence.com/vulnerability_reports/TALOS-2021-1297"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.debian.org/security/2021/dsa-4966"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.talosintelligence.com/vulnerability_reports/TALOS-2021-1297"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:R/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2HQG-PVGV-H68J
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:03 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:03The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Escut (ESCT) (Contract Name: JuntsPerCreixer), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13576"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-09T06:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for Escut (ESCT) (Contract Name: JuntsPerCreixer), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.",
"id": "GHSA-2hqg-pvgv-h68j",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:03:00Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:03:00Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13576"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/GEMCHAIN/mint%20integer%20overflow.md"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/JuntsPerCreixer"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2HWF-2VRP-G37H
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-14 03:13 – Updated: 2022-05-14 03:13The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for tickets (TKT), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2018-13742"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2018-07-09T06:29:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "The mintToken function of a smart contract implementation for tickets (TKT), an Ethereum token, has an integer overflow that allows the owner of the contract to set the balance of an arbitrary user to any value.",
"id": "GHSA-2hwf-2vrp-g37h",
"modified": "2022-05-14T03:13:26Z",
"published": "2022-05-14T03:13:26Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2018-13742"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/blob/master/GEMCHAIN/mint%20integer%20overflow.md"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/BlockChainsSecurity/EtherTokens/tree/master/tickets"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.0/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:H/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2JPF-4R7J-42QR
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 17:24 – Updated: 2022-05-24 17:24There is an issue with grub2 before version 2.06 while handling symlink on ext filesystems. A filesystem containing a symbolic link with an inode size of UINT32_MAX causes an arithmetic overflow leading to a zero-sized memory allocation with subsequent heap-based buffer overflow.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2020-14311"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2020-07-31T22:15:00Z",
"severity": "LOW"
},
"details": "There is an issue with grub2 before version 2.06 while handling symlink on ext filesystems. A filesystem containing a symbolic link with an inode size of UINT32_MAX causes an arithmetic overflow leading to a zero-sized memory allocation with subsequent heap-based buffer overflow.",
"id": "GHSA-2jpf-4r7j-42qr",
"modified": "2022-05-24T17:24:50Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T17:24:50Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2020-14311"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugzilla.redhat.com/show_bug.cgi?id=CVE-2020-14311"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://security.gentoo.org/glsa/202104-05"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://usn.ubuntu.com/4432-1"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2020-08/msg00016.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://lists.opensuse.org/opensuse-security-announce/2020-08/msg00017.html"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2021/09/17/2"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2021/09/17/4"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "http://www.openwall.com/lists/oss-security/2021/09/21/1"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-2JVM-JGG9-H383
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-03-20 21:31 – Updated: 2025-03-20 21:31Out-of-bounds array write in Xpdf 4.05 and earlier, due to incorrect integer overflow checking in the PostScript function interpreter code.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-2574"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190",
"CWE-787"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-03-20T21:15:23Z",
"severity": "LOW"
},
"details": "Out-of-bounds array write in Xpdf 4.05 and earlier, due to incorrect integer overflow checking in the PostScript function interpreter code.",
"id": "GHSA-2jvm-jgg9-h383",
"modified": "2025-03-20T21:31:47Z",
"published": "2025-03-20T21:31:47Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-2574"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.xpdfreader.com/security-bug/CVE-2025-2574.html"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:L/AC:H/AT:N/PR:N/UI:N/VC:N/VI:N/VA:L/SC:N/SI:N/SA:L/E:X/CR:X/IR:X/AR:X/MAV:X/MAC:X/MAT:X/MPR:X/MUI:X/MVC:X/MVI:X/MVA:X/MSC:X/MSI:X/MSA:X/S:X/AU:X/R:X/V:X/RE:X/U:X",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
]
}
GHSA-2M3M-4F43-3VH4
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2024-06-13 21:30 – Updated: 2024-07-16 15:30In wl_notify_rx_mgmt_frame of wl_cfg80211.c, there is a possible out of bounds write due to an integer overflow. This could lead to remote code execution with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2024-32913"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2024-06-13T21:15:55Z",
"severity": "CRITICAL"
},
"details": "In wl_notify_rx_mgmt_frame of wl_cfg80211.c, there is a possible out of bounds write due to an integer overflow. This could lead to remote code execution with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.",
"id": "GHSA-2m3m-4f43-3vh4",
"modified": "2024-07-16T15:30:44Z",
"published": "2024-06-13T21:30:55Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2024-32913"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/security/bulletin/pixel/2024-06-01"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:N/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2MVQ-M5M5-V7M7
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2026-06-02 00:31 – Updated: 2026-06-02 21:30In multiple locations, there is a possible way to achieve code execution due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-48595"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2026-06-01T22:16:18Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "In multiple locations, there is a possible way to achieve code execution due to an integer overflow. This could lead to local escalation of privilege with no additional execution privileges needed. User interaction is not needed for exploitation.",
"id": "GHSA-2mvq-m5m5-v7m7",
"modified": "2026-06-02T21:30:39Z",
"published": "2026-06-02T00:31:55Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-48595"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://source.android.com/docs/security/bulletin/2026/2026-06-01"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.cisa.gov/known-exploited-vulnerabilities-catalog?field_cve=CVE-2025-48595"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:U/C:H/I:H/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2MXC-FM8X-QGCP
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2025-09-22 21:30 – Updated: 2025-09-22 21:30In Artifex Ghostscript through 10.05.1, ocr_begin_page in devices/gdevpdfocr.c has an integer overflow that leads to a heap-based buffer overflow in ocr_line8.
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2025-59800"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2025-09-22T04:15:50Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "In Artifex Ghostscript through 10.05.1, ocr_begin_page in devices/gdevpdfocr.c has an integer overflow that leads to a heap-based buffer overflow in ocr_line8.",
"id": "GHSA-2mxc-fm8x-qgcp",
"modified": "2025-09-22T21:30:20Z",
"published": "2025-09-22T21:30:20Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2025-59800"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://bugs.ghostscript.com/show_bug.cgi?id=708602"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://cgit.ghostscript.com/cgi-bin/cgit.cgi/ghostpdl.git/commit/?id=176cf0188a2294bc307b8caec876f39412e58350"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:N/UI:N/S:C/C:N/I:L/A:N",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
}
]
}
GHSA-2MXC-JXW2-PF5C
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2022-05-24 19:18 – Updated: 2022-05-24 19:18Possible integer overflow due to improper length check while updating grace period and count record in Snapdragon Auto, Snapdragon Compute, Snapdragon Connectivity, Snapdragon Industrial IOT, Snapdragon Mobile, Snapdragon Wired Infrastructure and Networking
{
"affected": [],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-1913"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": false,
"github_reviewed_at": null,
"nvd_published_at": "2021-10-20T07:15:00Z",
"severity": "HIGH"
},
"details": "Possible integer overflow due to improper length check while updating grace period and count record in Snapdragon Auto, Snapdragon Compute, Snapdragon Connectivity, Snapdragon Industrial IOT, Snapdragon Mobile, Snapdragon Wired Infrastructure and Networking",
"id": "GHSA-2mxc-jxw2-pf5c",
"modified": "2022-05-24T19:18:24Z",
"published": "2022-05-24T19:18:24Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-1913"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://www.qualcomm.com/company/product-security/bulletins/october-2021-bulletin"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": []
}
GHSA-2P25-55C9-H58Q
Vulnerability from github – Published: 2021-11-10 19:33 – Updated: 2024-11-13 21:45Impact
If tf.tile is called with a large input argument then the TensorFlow process will crash due to a CHECK-failure caused by an overflow.
import tensorflow as tf
import numpy as np
tf.keras.backend.tile(x=np.ones((1,1,1)), n=[100000000,100000000, 100000000])
The number of elements in the output tensor is too much for the int64_t type and the overflow is detected via a CHECK statement. This aborts the process.
Patches
We have patched the issue in GitHub commit 9294094df6fea79271778eb7e7ae1bad8b5ef98f (merging #51138).
The fix will be included in TensorFlow 2.7.0. We will also cherrypick this commit on TensorFlow 2.6.1, TensorFlow 2.5.2, and TensorFlow 2.4.4, as these are also affected and still in supported range.
For more information
Please consult our security guide for more information regarding the security model and how to contact us with issues and questions.
Attribution
This vulnerability has been reported externally via a GitHub issue.
{
"affected": [
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.6.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.6.1"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.5.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.5.2"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.4.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-cpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.6.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.6.1"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-cpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.5.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.5.2"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-cpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.4.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-gpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.6.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.6.1"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-gpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "2.5.0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.5.2"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
},
{
"package": {
"ecosystem": "PyPI",
"name": "tensorflow-gpu"
},
"ranges": [
{
"events": [
{
"introduced": "0"
},
{
"fixed": "2.4.4"
}
],
"type": "ECOSYSTEM"
}
]
}
],
"aliases": [
"CVE-2021-41198"
],
"database_specific": {
"cwe_ids": [
"CWE-190"
],
"github_reviewed": true,
"github_reviewed_at": "2021-11-08T22:53:02Z",
"nvd_published_at": "2021-11-05T20:15:00Z",
"severity": "MODERATE"
},
"details": "### Impact\nIf `tf.tile` is called with a large input argument then the TensorFlow process will crash due to a `CHECK`-failure caused by an overflow.\n\n```python\nimport tensorflow as tf\nimport numpy as np\ntf.keras.backend.tile(x=np.ones((1,1,1)), n=[100000000,100000000, 100000000])\n```\n\nThe number of elements in the output tensor is too much for the `int64_t` type and the overflow is detected via a `CHECK` statement. This aborts the process.\n\n### Patches\nWe have patched the issue in GitHub commit [9294094df6fea79271778eb7e7ae1bad8b5ef98f](https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/commit/9294094df6fea79271778eb7e7ae1bad8b5ef98f) (merging [#51138](https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/pull/51138)).\n\nThe fix will be included in TensorFlow 2.7.0. We will also cherrypick this commit on TensorFlow 2.6.1, TensorFlow 2.5.2, and TensorFlow 2.4.4, as these are also affected and still in supported range.\n\n### For more information\nPlease consult [our security guide](https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/blob/master/SECURITY.md) for more information regarding the security model and how to contact us with issues and questions.\n\n### Attribution\nThis vulnerability has been reported externally via a [GitHub issue](https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/issues/46911).",
"id": "GHSA-2p25-55c9-h58q",
"modified": "2024-11-13T21:45:27Z",
"published": "2021-11-10T19:33:58Z",
"references": [
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/security/advisories/GHSA-2p25-55c9-h58q"
},
{
"type": "ADVISORY",
"url": "https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2021-41198"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/issues/46911"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow/commit/9294094df6fea79271778eb7e7ae1bad8b5ef98f"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/pypa/advisory-database/tree/main/vulns/tensorflow-cpu/PYSEC-2021-608.yaml"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/pypa/advisory-database/tree/main/vulns/tensorflow-gpu/PYSEC-2021-806.yaml"
},
{
"type": "WEB",
"url": "https://github.com/pypa/advisory-database/tree/main/vulns/tensorflow/PYSEC-2021-391.yaml"
},
{
"type": "PACKAGE",
"url": "https://github.com/tensorflow/tensorflow"
}
],
"schema_version": "1.4.0",
"severity": [
{
"score": "CVSS:3.1/AV:L/AC:L/PR:L/UI:N/S:U/C:N/I:N/A:H",
"type": "CVSS_V3"
},
{
"score": "CVSS:4.0/AV:L/AC:L/AT:N/PR:L/UI:N/VC:N/VI:N/VA:H/SC:N/SI:N/SA:N",
"type": "CVSS_V4"
}
],
"summary": "Overflow/crash in `tf.tile` when tiling tensor is large"
}
Mitigation
Ensure that all protocols are strictly defined, such that all out-of-bounds behavior can be identified simply, and require strict conformance to the protocol.
Mitigation MIT-3
Strategy: Language Selection
- Use a language that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid.
- If possible, choose a language or compiler that performs automatic bounds checking.
Mitigation MIT-4
Strategy: Libraries or Frameworks
- Use a vetted library or framework that does not allow this weakness to occur or provides constructs that make this weakness easier to avoid [REF-1482].
- Use libraries or frameworks that make it easier to handle numbers without unexpected consequences.
- Examples include safe integer handling packages such as SafeInt (C++) or IntegerLib (C or C++). [REF-106]
Mitigation MIT-8
Strategy: Input Validation
- Perform input validation on any numeric input by ensuring that it is within the expected range. Enforce that the input meets both the minimum and maximum requirements for the expected range.
- Use unsigned integers where possible. This makes it easier to perform validation for integer overflows. When signed integers are required, ensure that the range check includes minimum values as well as maximum values.
Mitigation MIT-36
- Understand the programming language's underlying representation and how it interacts with numeric calculation (CWE-681). Pay close attention to byte size discrepancies, precision, signed/unsigned distinctions, truncation, conversion and casting between types, "not-a-number" calculations, and how the language handles numbers that are too large or too small for its underlying representation. [REF-7]
- Also be careful to account for 32-bit, 64-bit, and other potential differences that may affect the numeric representation.
Mitigation MIT-15
For any security checks that are performed on the client side, ensure that these checks are duplicated on the server side, in order to avoid CWE-602. Attackers can bypass the client-side checks by modifying values after the checks have been performed, or by changing the client to remove the client-side checks entirely. Then, these modified values would be submitted to the server.
Mitigation MIT-26
Strategy: Compilation or Build Hardening
Examine compiler warnings closely and eliminate problems with potential security implications, such as signed / unsigned mismatch in memory operations, or use of uninitialized variables. Even if the weakness is rarely exploitable, a single failure may lead to the compromise of the entire system.
CAPEC-92: Forced Integer Overflow
This attack forces an integer variable to go out of range. The integer variable is often used as an offset such as size of memory allocation or similarly. The attacker would typically control the value of such variable and try to get it out of range. For instance the integer in question is incremented past the maximum possible value, it may wrap to become a very small, or negative number, therefore providing a very incorrect value which can lead to unexpected behavior. At worst the attacker can execute arbitrary code.